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Glass-to-metal seals are a very important element of the construction of vacuum tubes, electric discharge tubes, incandescent light bulbs, glass encapsulated semiconductor diodes, reed switches, pressure tight glass windows in metal cases, and metal or ceramic packages of electronic components. Properly done, such a seal is hermetic. To achieve such a seal, two properties must hold: # The molten glass must be capable of wetting the metal, in order to form a tight bond, and # The thermal expansion of the glass and metal must be closely matched so that the seal remains solid as the assembly cools. When one material goes through a hole in the other, such as a metal wire through a glass bulb, and the inner material's coefficient of thermal expansion is higher than that of the outer, it will shrink more as it cools, cracking the seal. If the inner material's coefficient of expansion is slightly less, the seal will tighten as it cools, which is often beneficial. Since most metals expand much more with heat than most glasses, this is not easy to arrange. ==Glass-to-metal bonds== Glass and metal can bond together by purely mechanical means, which usually gives weaker joints, or by chemical interaction, where the oxide layer on the metal surface forms a strong bond with the glass. The acid-base reactions are main causes of interaction between glass-metal in the presence of metal oxides on the surface of metal. After complete dissolution of the surface oxides into the glass, further progress of interaction depends on the oxygen activity at the interface. The oxygen activity can be increased by diffusion of molecular oxygen through some defects like cracks. Also, reduction of the thermodynamically less stable components in the glass (and releasing the oxygen ions) can increase the oxygen activity at the interface. In other words, the redox reactions are main causes of interaction between glass-metal in the absence of metal oxides on the surface of metal.〔(M. Fakouri Hasanabadi, A. Nemati, and A. H. Kokabi, “Effect of intermediate nickel layer on seal strength and chemical compatibility of glass and ferritic stainless steel in oxidizing environment for solid oxide fuel cells,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 40, no. 46, pp. 16434–16442, Oct. 2015. )〕 For achieving a vacuum-tight seal, the seal must not contain bubbles. The bubbles are most commonly created by gases escaping the metal at high temperature; degassing the metal before its sealing is therefore important, especially for nickel and iron and their alloys. This is achieved by heating the metal in vacuum or sometimes in hydrogen atmosphere or in some cases even in air at temperatures above those used during the sealing process. Oxidizing of the metal surface also reduces gas evolution. Most of the evolved gas is produced due to the presence of carbon impurities in the metals; these can be removed by heating in hydrogen. The glass-oxide bond is stronger than glass-metal. The oxide forms a layer on the metal surface, with the proportion of oxygen changing from zero in the metal to the stoichiometry of the oxide and the glass itself. A too thick oxide layer tends to be porous on the surface and mechanically weak, flaking, compromising the bond strength and creating possible leakage paths along the metal-oxide interface. Proper thickness of the oxide layer is therefore critical. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Glass-to-metal seal」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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